The marine environment : hazards , resources and the application of geoethics principles

Oceans cover three quarters of the Earth surface and represent a fundamental component of the global climate system. Life on Earth is closely tied to the climate system and thus to the oceans. Marine regions are subjected to numerous submarine natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and landslides, in many cases producing tsunamis that threaten coastal areas and many onshore and offshore man-made facilities. On the other hand, as society and technological needs progressively increase, the impact of human activities on coastal and deep waters become more severe, with consequences that include global warming and sea-level rise, coastal erosion, pollution, ocean acidification, damage to marine resources and ecosystem degradation. Nevertheless, humankind seems not to be adequately conscious about the different kind of hazards threatening the marine environment. The challenge for marine geoscientists is to be conscious of the geoethical compromise in order to alert society, industries and policy makers about the needs to minimize the risks of natural and human impacts in the ocean system.


IN TROD UCTION
ceans cover 71% of the Earth su rface and accou nt for 96.4% of the total w ater volu m e, provid ing the largest living space on the entire planet and p r od u cing abou t half of the global biospheric net prim ary prod u ction (Gregg et al., 2003).Oceans are part of the com plex ocean -atm osphere cou pling that regu lates global clim ate, as they store m ost of the su n's energy, d istribu te heat arou nd the planet and behave as a CO 2 reservoir (Bigg et O al., 2003).Therefore, life on Earth basically d epend s on oceans.As a fragile environm ent, u nd er a d elicate balance betw een clim ate and m arine physicalchem ical processes, oceans are especially vu lnerable to both natu ral and m an -ind u ced hazard s.N atu ral hazard s inclu d e su bm arine earthqu akes and volcanic eru ptions, land slid es and other u nd erw ater gravity-d riven p rocesses, tsu nam is and extrem e oceanographic and clim atic events like storm s, hu rricanes and w aterspou ts, am ong others.Man -ind u ced threatening factors, respond ing either to m isu se or negligence, encom pass: a) coastal m anagem ent and hand ling of offshore stru ctu res, su ch as ind u strial and tou ristic harbou r operation, port-access channels d red ging, coastal protection, d eploym ent of oil rigs, su bm arine d u cts and cables, and im plem entation of off-shore renew able m arine energy farm s; b) overexploitation of living and non-living resou rces, w ith intense bottom traw ling fishing activities and oil spills as the m ost d angerou s; and c) ocean pollu tion, iron fertilization and chem ical and solid w aste d u m ping.Other hazard s su ch as greenhou se gas em issions, global w arm ing, sea-level rise and coastal erosion m ay have both natu ral and anthropic cau ses.Oceans r espond to hu m an im p acts at d ifferent rates.For exam ple, short/ m ed iu m -term responses inclu d e m od ification of littoral processes, coastal erosion, coastal flood ing, alteration of highly bio-prod u ctive nearshore areas (d eltas, estu aries, w etland s) and threats to m arine life.Longterm responses inclu d e sea-level rise, ocean acid ification and alteration of seaw ater properties (tem peratu re, salinity, oxygen) (Pörtner et al., 2014).In general, hazard s at coasts and sea are not ad equ ately consid ered by the scientific comm u nity u nd er a social persp ective, and ethical principles are far from being applied in m ost of the cases.Thu s, m arine geosciences p rovid e a vast field for integrating scientific know led ge and ethical principles, w ith the objective of d eveloping a science-based , responsible and su stainable m anagem ent strategies for su ch a large and fu nd am ental environm ent.The pu rp ose of the present contribu tion is to synthesize som e of the m u ltiple issu es related to natu ral and anthropic hazard s at sea, as w ell as u nd erlining the need for a geoethical approach for ad equ ately evalu ating environm ental and social im pacts on oceans.These are critical need s, consid ering that the u se of the m arine sp ace, resou rces, and energy w ill be essential for fu tu re generations (UN CLOSS, 1982).

GEOETHICS, RISK, HAZARD AN D VULN ERABILITY AT SEA
Geoethical principles point to m ake geoscientists m ore aw are of their responsibilities in any situ ation w here scientists interact w ith society (e.g.: Peppoloni and Di Capu a, 2015;2017).Am ong the fu nd am ental valu es of geoethics listed in The Cape Tow n Statem ent on Geoethics (Di Capu a et al., 2017), three are of specific interest for m arine geoscience: (1) respecting natu ral processes and phenom ena, w here p ossible, w hen planning and im plem enting interventions in the m arine environm ent; (2) ensu ring su stainability of econom ic and social activ ities in ord er to assu re fu tu re generations' su pply of energy and other natu ral resou rces, and (3) prom oting geo-ed u cation and ou treach for all, to fu rther su stainable econom ic d evelopm ent, geohazard prevention and m itigation, environm ental protection and increased societal resilience and w ell-being.The applications of geoethical principles on the ocean environm ent have been alread y d iscu ssed by several au thors (e.g.: Safina, 2003, Dallm eyer, 2005, Zacharias and Gregr, 2005, Au ster et al., 2008, Pau ly and Stergiou , 2014, Marone et al., 2015).Zacharias and Gregr (2005) stated that all m arine featu res (biotic and abiotic) have been form ed and evolved w ithin a certain range of environm ental cond itions, and therefore they are sensitive to d iverse d egrees of stress accord ing to the interaction am ong hazard , vu lnerability and exposu re, term s alread y d efined by Tau benböck et al. (2008) and Di Capu a and Peppoloni (2014).Consid ering that the concept of risk d epend s u pon the d egree to w hich the hazard s threaten vu lnerable and exp osed hu m an facilities or r esou rces, for m arine environm ents it seem s obviou s that the highest risks are closest to inha bited coasts (E.g.: Dafforn et al., 2015).H ow ever, risk can also be high in d eep -sea environm ents, particu larly w here fragile ocean ecosystem s

MARIN E N ATURAL AN D AN THROPIC HAZARD S
Oceans are so vast that in principle it w ou ld seem u nlikely that a locally generated hazard in a coastal area cou ld affect far d eep -sea locations.H ow ever, the ocean circu lation system transports w ater throu gh all the ocean basins by both su rface and d eep -sea cu rrents, so that d ispersal of any com ponent existing in the w a-ter m ass (chem icals, pollu tants) far aw ay from the sou rce can occu r.On the other hand , the energy generated by d eep -sea geological processes (e.g.su bm arine earthqu akes, volcanic eru ptions or u nd erw ater slid es and slopes instabilities) can be transferred to su rface w aves, w hich can p otentially be transform ed in tsunam is that rapid ly p rop agate across the seas.So, the m arine environm ent can be consid ered as a system of com m u nicating vessels tran sporting m aterials and energy all arou nd the w orld .Som e of the natu ral and anthropic processes that m ay potentially represent a risk to oceans are listed in Tab. 1. Am ong them , earthqu akes, Table 1: General framework conceptualizing risk, hazard and vulnerability in the marine environment (modified after Taubenböck et al., 2008) volcanic eru ptions and gravity-d riven processes are natu ral hazard s that cannot be preven ted , bu t their im pacts on society can be m in im ized if geoethical princip les are ap plied at d ifferent stages of the risk m anagem ent, like in the early w arning, prevention and m itig ation.After these processes, several hu m an -ind u ced hazard s are d iscu ssed , and how these can be avoid ed if societies w ill reach the aw areness of the d am age they m ean.

Submarine earthquakes
They are som e of the m ost d angerou s natu ral processes at sea, becau se they are potential generators, am ong other im pacts, of large w aves ind u cing tsu nam is.As the m ost striking exam ple, the 9.1 m agnitu d e su bm arine earthqu ake of Su m atra ( 2004) generated a com plex series of tsu nam i w aves that p ropagated at a speed of 640 km / h prod u cing a significant loss of lives, thou sand s of d isplaced or m issing people and severe d am ages to the infrastru ctu res, affecting the coasts of 12 nations arou nd the Ind ian Ocean.Waves also travelled ou tsid e the Ind ian Ocean reaching areas very far aw ay in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (e.g.: Titov et al., 2005).In 2011, the 9.0 m agnitu d e earthqu ake in northeastern Japan also ind u ced a tsu nam i w ave that hit and d ram atically affected the region, inclu d ing the d estru ction of the Fu ku shim a Pow er Plant.The earthqu akes of Chile of 2010 and 2015 also originated big tsunam is w ith w aves as high as 11 m hitting not only the local shores bu t also the coasts of Sou th Am erica, California, N ew Zealand , H aw aii, Jap an and m any Pacific island s, w ith hu nd red s of d eaths and thou sand s of d estroyed hou ses.These exam ples show how the geoethic principles applied to the m arine env ironm ent are im portant, esp ecially w hen geohazard s affect rem ote coastal areas and island s w here em ergencies requ ire specific actions, w hich inclu d e social and political aw areness of the pre-and post-crisis m anagem ent stages.

Volcanism
Abou t 80% of the volcanic eru ptions on Earth take place u nd erw ater, p articu larly in volcanic arcs associated w ith su bd u ction zones and oth-er types of su bm arine volcanoes.H ow ever, volcanoes located in coastal regions and inhabited volcanic island s are also very im portant as they affect coastal com m u nities.Volcanic eru ptions close to the shore are able to trigger tsunam is (Egorov, 2007)

Gravity-driven mass transport
Und erw ater tu rbid itic flu xes, slid es and m asstransport processes on steep slopes and in su bm arine canyons norm ally resu lt from slope instabilities and collap ses, althou gh they can also be triggered by earthqu akes and v olcanic eru ptions in m any cases.These processes can d am age u nd erw ater m an -m ad e stru ctu res, su ch as oil rigs, d u cts and cables.In fact, tu rbid ity cu rrents w ere d iscovered after an earthqu ake offshore the coast of Terranova, Canad a (1929) broke telegraphic cables in the ocean.An old er w ell-know n su bm arine slid e is that of Storegga, in the N orw egian Sea, w hich occu rred at 8,200 years BP as a consequ ence of a hu ge earthqu ake.This slid e ind u ced a series of tsu nam is w aves affecting nu m erou s coastal areas in the N orth Sea, record ing a m axim u m w ave height of 20-30 m in the Shetland Island s (Bond evik et al., 2003).Like Storegga, m any su bm arine slid es and their associated tsu nam is w aves are acknow led ged as im portant sou rces of geohazard w ith a vast im pact on the safety both of peoples living on the coastal areas and of the offshore and onshore infrastru ctu res (Masson et al., 2006).

Sea-level rise and coastal retreat
Present  2007), long-term global shoreline change rates are 50 to 200 tim es higher than sea-level rise, w hich m eans that 10 cm of sea-level increase w ou ld im ply 5 to 20 m of coastal retreat.Of cou rse, not only sea-level rise bu t also clim ate (e.g.throu gh the energy of storm s su rges), u rbanization, and hu m anind u ced m isu se of the shores p rom ote coastal erosion, by altering the natu ral along -shore sed im ent transp ort and the equ ilibriu m in the beach cond itions.Therefore, the su stainable u se of the littoral space is one of the im portant issu es w here geoethical p rinciples shou ld be ap plied , m ainly throu gh an ad equ ate social aw areness of its vu lnerability and the im plem entation of shore protection m anagem ent, w hich shou ld be su stained by long-term policies aim ed at to p revent or at least m inim ize the d ram atic im p act of clim ate change and m an-m ad e infrastru ctu res u pon coastal erosion and recession.

Pollution
Ocean p ollu tion is another seriou s concern that hu m ankind is facing tod ay.The largest am ou nt of pollu tants at sea com es from activities on land , particu larly d u m ping trash and litter, oil spills, chem icals and fertilizers.Prod u cts r eleased from ships also contribu te significantly.Accord ing to the inform ation provid ed by N OAA (http:/ / w w w .noaa.gov/ resou rcecollections/ ocean -pollu tion), 1.4 billion pou nd s of trash per year enter into the ocean.Plastic d ebris accu m u lates along and off the coasts in garbage patches as a resu lt of ocean cu rrents and local ed d ies, and m icroplastics have been fou nd in d eep -sea sed im ents (Wod d al et al., 2014).Its pervasive presence in all oceans is a big issu e as the im pact on m arine ecosystem sand u ltim ately u pon hu m an health -has not been yet fu lly established .The tim e has com e to better m onitor the pollu tants d ispersal and d isposal in the m arine environm ent and d eepsed im ents, to red u ce land -based m arine p ollution by im proving sew age and w astew ater treatm ent, to ed u cate you th and increase the pu blic aw areness throu gh the m ed ia, and to influ ence the d ecision -m aking p rocesses.Throu gh these actions, ou r u nsu stainable consu m ption and prod u ction p atterns m ay eventu ally change in the fu tu re (UN ESCO, 2012).

Ocean fertilization, acidification and eutrophication
Ocean fertilization (natu ral or m an -ind u ced ) generally refers to su pplying iron to the sea w ith significant im p act on living resou rces (Wallace et al., 2010).Artificial fertilization u sed to increase phytoplankton to su pport fisheries, as w ell as fertilization techniqu es u sed to d raw -d ow n atm osp heric CO 2 (Jin et al., 2008) are clear exam ples of how ethical principles shou ld be ap plied to p revent certain sp ecies from being harm ed w hen others are intend ed to be benefited .N atu ral fertilization w ith iron sou rced in rivers and airborne volcanic ash is an im p ortant feed er of oceanic su rface w aters (Du ggen et al., 2010).This is a com m on process in the Sou thw estern Atlantic, w here large am ou nts of iron -rich volcanic ashes from the And ean volcanoes are transported eastw ard s by strong w esterly w ind s, p rod u cing abnorm al phytoplankton and algal bloom s (Signorini et al., 2009) that in som e cases m ight be harm fu l to m arine fau nas.Another problem is ocean acid ification, w hich is the red u ction of seaw ater pH d u e to increased atm ospheric CO 2 .Oceans absorb m ore than 26 % of the CO 2 released to the atm osphere by greenhou se em ission, and accord in g to UN ESCO (2012) oceans cou ld becom e 150 % m ore acid ic than tod ay by 2100, w hich w ou ld cau se d ram atic acceleration in loss of biod iversity and irr eversible ecological transform ations.Eu troph ication is the enrichm ent of seaw ater w ith excessive d issolved nu trients, w hich prod u ces algal and phytoplankton bloom s that m ay d eplete and consu m e oxygen, w ith consequ ent d am age to m arine life (Ansari et al., 2011).Accord ing to Zacharias and Gregr (2005), oceans have su ffered from a lack of qu antitative m ethod s aim ed at d elineating areas w ith d ifferent d egrees of vu lnerability.Thu s, geoscientists shou ld id entify the regions w here fragile ecosystem s are especially u nd er threat, m onitor the occu rrence of harm fu l bloom s that m ight alter the m arine fau na and im ply a risk for hu m an-health and foster the protection of the ocean and its living resou rces.

N on-living resources exploitation
As hyd rocarbon exploration is expand ing to previou sly inaccessible d eep w aters, p otential w ater pollu tion and d am age to ecosystem s d u e to offshore exploration and d rilling need s to be evalu ated .Deep -sea seism ic exploration u su ally em ploys airgu ns as a sou rce of energy that prod u ces pressu re w aves throu gh the w ater colu m n, w hich potentially d istu rbs m arine fau nas.Other, less-know n bu t continu ou s contam ination effects of offshore d rilling oper ations consist in the d isposal of d rilling m u d , brine w astes, d eck ru noff w ater and flow line and pipeline leaks.Catastrophic spills rep r esent a seriou s threat for m arine ecosystem s.
Althou gh m ore care and responsibility cou ld lim it the frequ ency of m ajor accid ents affecting offshore rigs, pipelines and oil storage, shipping rou tines and natu ral d isasters pu t oil and gas exploitations at u npred ictable risk.Another potential hazard is d eep -sea m ining, w hich consists of u sing m assive m achines to d red ge and grind thou sand s of tons of rock at the sea floor to extract p reciou s m inerals (gold , cop per, zinc, cobalt, m anganese, titaniu m ) from ore, hyd rotherm al and polym etallic nod u le d epo sits.It represents an extrem ely expensive u nd ertaking d u e to the technical challenges involved in retrieving large am ou nts of m aterials from great w ater d epths.From a geoethical perspective, the balance betw een econom ic benefits and environm ental and social im pacts shou ld be accu rately estim ated in ord er to avoid vast and irrem ed iable d am ages to fragile and u niqu e d eep -sea life.Ocean scientists, w ater experts and local comm u nities shou ld cooperate w ith governm ent, private sector and policy m akers to d evelop plans for su stainable environm ental m anagem ent as w ell as to prom ote the generation of legal and policy fram ew orks regu lating the access to d eep seabed resou rces (UN ESCO, 2012).For the fu tu re, an increasing d em and for nonenergy m inerals is expected to su pport even the renew able green energies.The point is w hether a responsible d eep -sea m ining is possible or not.Local benthic comm u nities, w hich are often extrem ely specialized , cou ld perm anently be d am aged , and plu m es of sed im ent d riven by the d red ging m achines m ight p otentially im pact the w hole w ater colu m n by introd u cing chem ical, noise and light pollu tion far aw ay from the m ining site.Moreover, d eep -sea m ining inclu d es ad d ed d ifficu lties w hen com pared to land -based extraction: restoration of sea-bottom after m ining can be slow er than land soil recovery, in the case that there is any chance to restore sea-bottom to the previou s u nd istu rbed cond itions; the high costs to operate at great d epths m ake com p any's good practice m ore expensive and thu s less p robable; finally, d eep-sea ecosystem s associated to hyd rotherm al vents are poorly know n, and policies to p reserve and restore these habitats are so far inad equ ate.

Living resources exploitation
Du ring the last 50 years, the ecosystem s have been strongly m od ified by th e increased hum an d em and for food and energy.This is the first conclu sion reached by "The Millenniu m Ecosystem Assessm ent" (https:/ / w w w .millenniu m assessm ent.org/ en/ Synthesis.html, accessed 1 Ju ne 2018) that provid es a state-of-the-art abou t the present-day cond itions and d eterioration of ecosystem s w orld w id e.The ind u strial exploitation of the ocean's living resou rces is carried m ainly by bottom traw ling, w hich is a non -selective com m ercial fishing techniqu e by w hich heavy nets and gear are pu lled along th e sea-floor w ith d irect negative im pacts not only on fish popu lations and benthic com m u n ities, bu t also on the sea-floor, as this p ractice affects and som etim es d estroys the su bstratu m w here benthic and d em ersal sp ecies live and feed (Pu ig et al., 2012).Bottom traw ling is a global, regu lar and harm fu l rou tine and thu s the need s for applying ethical principles to m inim ize its im pact and d am age u p on the environm ent are u rgent.These m ight inclu d e: red u ction of fishery effort by lim iting the fleet m otor p ow er and p rom oting a m ore trad itional w ay of fishing (tramm els, little long lines and trap s); ed u cation add ressed to the society for a m ore responsible and su stainable consu m e of the living resou rces; respect of the natu ral processes (consu m e of seasonal species); im plem entation of policies that prom ote the protection of the m arine environm ent in general and of specific vu lnerable areas in p articu lar (e.g.creating m arine p rotected areas for fishing); and finally, lau nch of co-m anagem ent processes, w here fisherm en, scientists and ad m inistration coo perate to m aintain an healthy statu s of the stock.

Marine energies
Energy contained in w aves, tid es, cu rrents and offshore w ind s, as w ell as that com ing from high grad ients of w ater p roperties (therm al and osm otic energy) can be feasibly converted into electricity.Their facilities inclu d e floating d evices or anchored bu oys that catch the energy of the w aves, tid al tu rbines associated to d am s or barrages bu ilt at estu aries or at the passages betw een island s and archipelagos, and w ind farm s w ith tu rbine tow ers anchored to the ocean floor.Althou gh m any cou ntries are investing tod ay in renew able technologies (UN ESCO, 2017; Yang and Cop ping, 2017) the offshore stru ctu res that these technologies need are consid erably expensive.In ad d ition, they often significantly im p act the local environm ent.For exam ple, w ind m ills m ay alter bird s m igratory corrid ors, tid al tu rbines m ay have a negative effect on m arine fau nas, and large w ave energy stru ctu res m ay lim it the m ixing of the u pper layers of sea-w aters w hich cou ld adversely im pact m arine life and fisheries, leading to the d isplacem ent and alteration of ecosystem s.On the other hand , id eal spots for their installation are not as nu m erou s as one can expect, for exam ple m ost m arine regions cannot be exploited becau se they are too far rem ote and the costs of constru ction and cabling the pow er to the grid w ou ld be p rohib itive.Althou gh oceanic renew able energy is tod ay a feasible technology, environm ental impact assessm ents, facilities lifetim e pred iction, stru ctu res ru ptu re and costs-benefits evalu ations need to be estim ated u nd er a geoethical perspective to d evelop a su stainable potential for their im plem entation .

CON CLUSION S
The ap plication of geoethical p rinciples at sea in the context of natu ral and hu m an -ind u ced hazard s is a novel concept.These p rinciples have been trad itionally app lied to land -based problem s, perhap s becau se continents are w here people live and w here w ell-know n geohazard s (earthqu akes, volcanic eru p tions, flood ings, d rou ghts, etc.) m ost com m only affect every-d ay life of thou sand s of people.On the other hand , there is a general perception abou t the oceans as a "w aterw orld " containing nothing bu t w ater, or at m ost end less fisheries, w ith no evid ent hazard s.Both coastal and d eep w aters are su bjected to increasing pressu re from hu m an infrastru ctu res and activities w ithou t a clear aw areness of the potential risks.Tsu nam is m ay be the best-know n natu ral hazard related to the sea, bu t other sou rces of p otential d am ages com e from su bm arine earthqu akes, volcanic eru ptions and gravity-ind u ced sed im entary processes, w hich can a ffect not only the coastal regions bu t also m any offshore hu m an facilities like oil rigs, d u cts and su bm arine cables.Man -ind u ced pollu tion and overexploitation of living and non -living resou rces are other hazard s that threaten the fragile oceanic ecosystem .Marine cu rrents are effective agents that transport sed im ents, pollutants and energy across the ocean basins.With the searching of new resou rces and technologies, the sea is consid ered as the m ain su pplier of food and energy for the near fu tu re.The com prehension of the m arine environm ent is essential for protecting hu m ans from oceansou rced hazard s, and geoethical principles can be su itable ap plied on a w id e range of cases.In ord er to prevent the im p act of m an -m ad e facilities and infrastru ctu res on the m arine env ironm ent, hu m an interventions shou ld be d one w ithin the respect of the natu ral processes and phenom ena of the ocean; to prevent the m arine environm ent d eterioration, and for the fu tu re generations' benefit, energy and natu ral r esou rces of the oceans shou ld be u sed in a su stainable w ay, avoid ing p ollu tion and overexploitation; to m inim ize the risks and to save lives, geohazard prevention and m itigation, environm ental protection and increased societal resilience and w ell-being cou ld be achieved throu gh a correct early w arning m echanism s and a geo-ed u cation ad d ressed to society and policy m akers, so as to ap ply the m ost reason able responses and actions w hen a geohazard is ap proaching.

ACKNOWLEDGEMEN TS
Au thors thank Giu seppe Di Capu a and Silvia Peppoloni for inviting and encou raging u s to w rite this contribu tion.We are ind ebted to three anonym ou s review ers for their valu able corrections, com m ents, su ggestions and recom m end ations that helped u s to su bstantially im prove the qu ality of the p aper.Anna Bozz ano contribu ted to the section "Living resou rces exploitation".
-d ay sea-level rise and coastal retreat m ay have both natu ral and hu m an -ind u ced cau ses.They are a concern as they strongly affect m ost popu lated coastal regions threatening both the littoral environm ent and hu m an facilities.Observed m ean sea level has risen b etw een 17 and 21 cm since 1901 (Chu rch et al., 2013) d u e to global w arm ing, ocean therm al expansion and glaciers m elt.These valu es represent an average annu al increase of 1.7 m m , althou gh estim ations for the last 25 years are m u ch higher (3.2 m m / year).Accord ing to N icholls et al. ( For explosive eru ptions, the Volcanic Explosivity Ind ex(N ew hall  et al., 2018)shou ld be established by volcanologists in ord er to evalu ate the m agnitu d e of the eru ptions, foresee the possible im pacts, and ad vice au thorities on the m ost reasonable r esponses and actions to im plem ent.
(Violante et al., 2014)i w ave(Violante et al., 2014), w ith no ad verse effects as it reached the u ninhabited shores of Antarctica.The su bm arine eru ption at El H ierro Island (Canarian A rchipelago, Sp ain, 2011), occu rred w hen the opening of a su bm arine vent and the onset of a fissu re eru ption at 900 m w ater d epth and 5 km offshore the tow n of La Restinga, gave place to the ejection of volcanic bom bs, ash and pyr oclasts.In that occasion, the civil protection pr oceed ed to a m assive evacu ation of the coastal popu lations that afterw ard resu lted u nnecessary w ith a negative im pact on local econom y(Carraced o et al., 2012).This is an exam ple that show s the need of ad equ ate early w arnings and solid science-based recom m end ations for a proper crisis m anagem ent.